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Wednesday, April 16, 2008 — Once again, the medical authorities are advising us NOT to take nutritional supplements. This time the effort comes from the United Kingdom. A group of scientists reviewed several dozen health research studies that had covered antioxidant supplements — Vitamin A, Beta Carotene, Vitamin C, the antioxidant mineral Selenium and Vitamin E. The study is linked below.*

The reviewed studies included 67 different efforts that involved over 232,000 people. Both healthy and unhealthy people were studied. The conclusion of this ‘review of reviews’ was that most of the anti-oxidants were not associated with any positive health benefit, except for Selenium.

Some supplemental anti-oxidants were associated with increased risks of death or cancer — Vitamin A and Beta Carotene increased risks by 16% and 7% respectfully, while Vitamin E increased risks of cancer by 4%. Vitamin C did not increase risks, but did not reduce them either. Selenium decreased risks about 9% in men for prostate cancer. Smoking tobacco products was also associated with most of the increases.

THE MAGIC BULLET THEORY

What’s the problem with this new review? Simple. All of these so-called scientific studies that were included in the review were testing the particular supplement the same way, making the same error in judgment — they were looking for a magic bullet.

They were asking “Does adding this supplement to the diet help prevent disease?” Seems like an innocent enough question, right?

Wrong.

When you add a single nutrient to your diet, especially in large quantities, you unbalance a finely tuned biological system. The body is built to operate within certain normal limits. When you upset the balance by adding too much of a particular nutrient, you risk exceeding those limits.

Further, most antioxidants work synergistically. Each operates as a biochemical ‘cog’ in the bio-gears that run your body. Adding one antioxidant without its synergistic partners, and without the cofactors that it needs to function within the body, is certainly not helpful. Why would it be?

When scientists design a study that adds large quantities of any particular nutrient into a balanced system, they are going to ‘discover’ the same result for each added unbalancing compound. They will prove that in health there are NO MAGIC BULLETS.

THE FIX IS IN

Interestingly, the way these studies are setup pre-determines their outcomes.

How should they be studied? They should test people to see if they are deficient in any particular nutrient. Then, for those people only, they should add that nutrient, plus any and all known cofactors and synergistic partner nutrients. Then they should report the results of this practice on the participants.

Even these scientists must already know that people who take a broad range of dietary supplements, in addition to eating a healthy diet, are generally healthier than those who do not. Thousands of studies demonstrate the wisdom of eating a healthy diet and taking a wide range of supplements.

However, taking merely one or two, or even a few supplements in large quantities is obviously NOT a good idea. Why that should be news to anyone is a good question.

So, why are we seeing so many of these “Magic Bullet” quasi-scientific reviews and stories in the news? Because there are powerful interests in the medical, pharmaceutical and health-industry world which desire us to believe that ‘natural cures’ don’t work, while ‘traditional medicine’ does.

The world is full of ‘traditional medicine’ snake-oil salesmen (and women). The magic bullets they are selling are patented. The profits in today’s patented magic bullet medical system are unthinkably enormous. Billions and billions are transferred from our pockets to the owners of the patents on the magic bullets of today’s acceptable, authoritarian sales people.

BILLIONS FOR BULLETS

Today’s patented medicines are the world’s most profitable businesses. Altogether, the patented medical drug business is a TRILLION DOLLAR industry.

This mega-industry overpowers the economies of each of the world’s large countries, as well as all the small nations. It dictates the laws regulating medical commerce, the directions of future research, and the regulations for the practice of medicine itself.

Governmental regulatory bureaus are staffed with people who received their scientific and medical education under subsidies from patent holding drug companies. The medical schools and universities where researchers and physicians undertook their scientific training and education were heavily subsidized by pharmaceutical profits from Magic Bullet Medicine.

Pharmaceutical company representatives — sales people — actually pay doctors to listen to their pitches during sales calls they make in the doctor’s office. Since laws restrain them from paying in cash, they pay with so-called ‘free samples’, other valuable gifts, free dinner invitations, tickets to conventions, lectures, and invitations to speak at events for which the are paid directly. As many as 1/3 of physicians in some specialties have lectured at drug company sponsored events and been paid by the drug companies to do so. See this 2007 article in The Journal of the American Medical Association about payments to doctors.
Because insurance payments to physicians are so low these days, doctors rely on drug rep payments as a major portion of their real income. For some physicians, this can amount to the equivalent of thousands of dollars per month.

Doctors are graded by the pharmaceutical patent owners, and rewarded on a sliding scale according to the number of prescriptions they give to their patients for certain drugs. The data comes from a national prescription database which contains patient info, doctor info and drugs prescribed. Every prescription filled at a pharmacy is entered into the database, which is made available to the drug companies.

Should this system be changed? Well that is a very controversial issue. But that it exists is not. Our system works to ensure the sales of patented ‘magic bullet’ drugs.

It shouldn’t surprise anyone that medical research is oriented to support the magic bullet theory. Nor should it surprise anyone that non-patented magic bullets receive bad reviews by researchers whose education, salaries, and social life all center around patented wonder drugs.

THE MISSING QUESTION

The one question we can be certain that will seldom be asked is — “Are patented drugs generally helpful?” In other words — “Are there ANY magic bullets for health?”
Heaven forbid that we actually figure out that nobody has a magic bullet, a wonder drug or single therapy that will simplify our search for health and youthfulness — compressing the answer into a single pill or a handful of pills.

No matter who tells you they have found a magic bullet for health, don’t believe them.

Health requires a perfect balance of about 50 different nutrients — vitamins, minerals, fiber, fluids, antioxidants, fats, proteins, carbohydrates — all of which can be found freely in common vegetables, fruit, nuts, beans, spices, water, and yes… a few more behaviors including regular exercise, fresh air, exposure to sunlight, and support from companions, loving companionship from friends and family.

There is no magic bullet. Your doctor doesn’t have one, and neither does any vitamin company nor drug store.

The Greek doctor Hippocrates, remembered as the Father of Medicine, said it best thousands of years ago: “Let food be your medicine, and medicine be your food.”

If you’re already sick, then a few pills may help. But that’s a very dangerous road. Tread it with caution.

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*Source: Antioxidant supplements for prevention of mortality in healthy participants and patients with various diseases Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, Simonetti RG, Gluud C. Antioxidant supplements for prevention of mortality in healthy participants and patients with various diseases. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008, Issue 2. Art. No.: CD007176. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD007176

We believe that many if not most adults should consider supplementing their diet with appropriate amounts of DHEA. The amount needed will vary according to your age, your sex and your own metabolic condition. Common doses of dehydroepiandrosterone range from 25mg to 100mg per day. Even though the supplement product is available over the counter without a prescription in the USA, it is important to consult a health care professional before taking this hormone.

You and your physician or dietitian need to talk about this subject. However, the importance of DHEA in health is indisputed. It is a vital hormone actually at the center of many of the body’s metabolic processes. Some have theorized that since it declines as we age, it may in fact be one of the true causes of ageing. Whether or not that is true, adding controlled doses of DHEA can produce a sense of youthful vigor in many people. We have added dehydroepiandrosterone to our Top 10 List of Most Important Dietary Supplements.

What is DHEA?

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), is a natural steroid hormone produced from cholesterol by the adrenal glands found atop of the kidneys in the human body. DHEA is also produced in the gonads, adipose tissue and the brain. DHEA is structurally similar to, and is a precursor of, androstenedione, testosterone and estrogen. It is the most abundant hormone in the human body. Synonymes for Dehydroepiandrosterone are: Dehydroisoandrosterone; 3beta-Hydroxy-5-androsten-17-one; 3beta-Hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one; Androstenol; Androstenolone; Dehydroisoandrosterone; Hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one; Prasterone; trans-Dehydroandrosterone. Brand names for DHEA include Prastera® and Fidelin®.

DHEA-DHEAS

Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) is the sulfated version of DHEA, - this conversion is reversibly catalyzed by sulfotransferase (SULT2A1) primarily in the adrenals, the liver, and small intestines. In blood, most DHEA is found as DHEAS with levels that are about 300 times higher than free DHEA. Orally ingested DHEA is converted to its sulfate when passing through intestines and liver. While DHEA levels reach their peak in the early morning hours, DHEAS levels show no diurnal variation. DHEAS is biologically active only after its sulfate group has been split and it becomes DHEA again.

From a practical point measurement of DHEAS is preferable to DHEA as levels are more stable.

DHEA is produced from cholesterol through two cytochrome P450 enzymes. Cholesterol is converted to pregnenolone by the enzyme P450 scc (side chain cleavage) and then another enzyme P450c17 (CYP17A) converts pregnenolone to 17α-Hydroxypregnenolone and then to DHEA. In humans DHEA is the dominant steroid hormone and precursor of all sex steroids. Humans produce DHEA in greater quantity than any other species. Even non-human primates have not much more than 10% the relative serum level of DHEA seen in humans. The fact that rodents produce so little DHEA makes the results of experiments conducted with these laboratory animals very controversial.

DHEA production is very high during fetal life by the fetal adrenal glands, declines after birth and remains low during childhood. Production begins around 6 years of age, increasing in quantity until peaking in early adulthood, around the age of 25, and declines afterwards to approximately 10% of peak levels by age 80. It is theorized by some that this decline may be due to reduced oxygen and glucose supply to the adrenal glands as a result of age-related atherosclerosis.

Role of DHEA

In a simple view DHEA can be understood as a prohormone for the sex steroids. Its DHEAS variation may be looked at as buffer and reservoir. Its production in the brain suggests that is also has a role as a neurosteroid. As most DHEA is produced by the zona reticularis of the adrenal, it is argued that there is a role in the immune and stress response. DHEA may have more biologic roles.

As almost all DHEA is derived from the adrenal glands, blood measurements of DHEAS/DHEA are useful to detect excess adrenal activity as seen in adrenal cancer or hyperplasia, including certain forms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Women with polycystic ovary syndrome tend to have normal or mildly elevated levels of DHEAS.

Effects of DHEA

Studies have shown that DHEA is useful in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. An application of the evidence was reviewed by the FDA in 2001 and is available online. This review also shows that cholesterol and other serum lipids decrease with the use of DHEA.

Supplementation with DHEA has been shown to decrease insulin resistance.

Long term supplementation has been shown to improve mood and relieve depression.

Disputed effects of DHEA

The significance of the hormone in health and disease is not fully established. It is postulated that DHEA supplements are beneficial in the prevention of:

* cardiovascular disease
* diabetes
* hypercholesterolemia
* obesity
* multiple sclerosis
* Parkinson’s disease
* Alzheimer’s disease
* disorders of the immune system
* depression
* osteoporosis

It is also commercially advertised that DHEA:

* helps decrease insulin resistance
* improves fat metabolism
* increases immune system function
* has anti-aging properties
* increases lean muscle mass

7-Keto™ DHEA, a recently identified natural metabolite of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is claimed to be both more effective and safer than DHEA because it does not convert itself into testosterone or estrogens in the body.

DHEA and DHEAS are readily available in the United States, but not in many other countries.

Precautions

Some assert that DHEA should not be supplemented outside specialist centres under careful observation of experts in the field of endocrinology.

Side effects may include:

* extensive growth of body hair, or hirsutism
* male pattern baldness
* acne

Contraindication

As DHEAS and DHEA are converted to sex steroids, their use is contraindicated in patients with any cancer that is estrogen or testosterone dependent.

Increasing endogenous DHEA production

Regular exercise is known to the body. Caloric restriction has also been shown to increase DHEA in primates.

Much of the information on this page was obtained from the Wikipedia. Other background information was obtained from the National Institutes of Health web-site, Pubmed.org.

We believe that getting at least 40 grams per day of dietary fiber is vital to health. We have included fiber in our list of The Top 10 Most Important Dietary Supplements.

Research indicates that people who eat enough fiber in their diet do not suffer from high rates of diabetes, heart disease, cancers, hypertension and many other degenerative diseases. An example of a diet with enough fiber would be eating a full cup of beans during the day, 2 apples, some carrots, 2 pears and taking perhaps 3 to 6 capsules of Milk Thistle (sillymarin) or Psillium Seed Powder fiber.

What is Dietary Fiber?

Dietary fibers are the indigestible portion of plant foods that move food through the digestive system and absorb water. Chemically, dietary fiber consists of non-starch polysaccharides and several other plant components such as cellulose, lignin, waxes, chitins, pectins, beta-glucans, inulin and oligosaccharides.

Defining Insoluble and Soluble Fibers

Sources of dietary fiber are usually divided into categories of “insoluble” and “soluble”. Both types are present in all plant foods, with varying degrees of each according to a plant’s characteristics. Insoluble refers to lack of solubility in water, but with passive water-attracting properties that help to increase bulk, soften stools and shorten transit time through the intestinal tract. Soluble indicates a fiber source that would readily dissolve in water.

As will be discussed here, those definitions are too limiting, especially because soluble fiber undergoes active metabolic processing via fermentation that yields end-products with broad, significant health effects.

To conceptualize insoluble and soluble fibers, consider the segments of a plum (or prune) — its thick skin covering a juicy pulp. The plum skin is an example of an insoluble fiber source, whereas soluble fiber sources are inside the pulp. Other sources of insoluble fiber include whole wheat, wheat and corn bran, flax seed lignans and vegetables such as carrots, celery, green beans and potato skins.

One of the most versatile sources of dietary fiber is the husk (hull) of seeds from psyllium grain Plantago ovata a fiber source with clinically demonstrated properties of lowering blood cholesterol when chronically included in human diets. Psyllium seed husk is 34% insoluble fiber and 66% soluble fiber, providing an optimal division of both types that make it a valuable food additive.

Fermentable Fiber

The American Association of Cereal Chemists defined soluble fiber this way: “the edible parts of plants or similar carbohydrates resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine with complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine”.

There are several key words in that statement that invite analysis and comment for considering fermentable fiber.

edible parts of plants – indicates that all parts of a plant we eat – skin, pulp, seeds, stems, leaves, roots – contain fiber. Both insoluble and soluble sources would be in those plant components.

carbohydrates – complex carbohydrates, such as long-chained sugars also called starch, oligosaccharides or polysaccharides, are excellent sources of fiber.

resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine – foods providing nutrients are digested by enzymes and acids in the stomach and small intestine where the nutrients are released then absorbed through the intestinal wall for transport via the blood throughout the body. A food resistant to this process is undigested, as insoluble and soluble fibers are. They pass to the large intestine only affected by their absorption of water (insoluble fiber) or dissolution in water (soluble fiber).

complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine – the large intestine is comprised mainly of a segment called the colon within which additional nutrient absorption occurs through the process of fermentation. Fermentation occurs by the action of colonic bacteria on the food mass, producing gases and short-chain fatty acids. It is these short-chain fatty acids – butyric, acetic, propionic, and valeric acids — that have such significant health properties.

Short-chain Fatty Acids

Short-chain fatty acids are used by the intestinal mucosa or absorbed through the colonic wall into portal blood (supplying the liver) that transports them into the general circulation. Particularly butyric acid has extensive physiological actions that promote health effects among which are

* Stabilize blood glucose levels by acting on pancreatic insulin release and liver control of glycogen breakdown

* Suppress cholesterol synthesis by the liver and reduce blood levels of low-density lipids (LDL cholesterol) and triglycerides responsible for atherosclerosis

* Lower colonic pH (i.e., raise the acidity levels in the colon) which protects the colon lining from cancer polyp formation and increases absorption of minerals

* Stimulate production of T helper cells, antibodies, leukocytes, splenocyte cytokines and lymph mechanisms having crucial roles in immune protection

* Increase proliferation of colonic bacteria beneficial for intestinal health — bifidobacteria and lactobacilli (serving a probiotic function)

* Improve barrier properties of the colonic mucosal layer, inhibiting inflammatory and adhesion irritants

Summarizing these effects, fermentable fibers yield the important short-chain fatty acids that affect blood glucose and lipid levels, improve the colonic environment and regulate immune responses.

Regulatory Guidance on Fiber Products

North Americans consume less than 50% of the dietary fiber levels required for good health. In the preferred food choices of today’s youth, this value may be as low as 20%, a factor considered by experts as contributing to the obesity crisis seen in many first-world western countries.

Recognizing the growing scientific evidence for physiological benefits of increased fiber intake, regulatory agencies such as the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have given approvals to food products making health claims for fiber.

In clinical trials to date, these fiber sources were shown to significantly reduce blood cholesterol levels and so are important to cardiovascular health.

Soluble (fermentable) fiber sources gaining FDA approval are

* Psyllium seed husk (7 grams per day)
* Beta-glucan from oat bran, whole oats, oatrim or rolled oats (3 grams per day)
* Beta-glucan from whole grain or dry-milled barley (3 grams per day)

Other examples of fermentable fiber sources (from plant foods or biotechnology) used in functional foods and supplements include inulin, fructans, xanthan gum, cellulose, guar gum, fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and oligo- or polysaccharides.

Consistent intake of fermentable fiber through foods like berries and other fresh fruit, vegetables, whole grains, seeds and nuts is now known to reduce risk of some of the world’s most prevalent diseases - obesity, diabetes, high blood cholesterol, cardiovascular disease, and numerous gastrointestinal disorders. In this last category are constipation, inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease, diverticulitis and colon cancer – all disorders of the intestinal tract where fermentable fiber can provide healthful benefits.

Although for years dietary fiber has been said to reduce the risk of colon cancer, one study conducted by researchers at the Harvard School of Medicine of over 88,000 women did not show a statistically significant relationship between higher fiber consumption and lower rates of colorectal cancer or adenomas.[1]

Guidelines on fiber intake

The American Dietetic Association (ADA) recommends a minimum of 20-35 g/day for a healthy adult depending on calorie intake (e.g., a 2000 cal/8400 kj diet should include 25 g of fiber per day). The ADA’s recommendation for a child was that intake should equal age in years plus 5 g/day for children (e.g., a 4 year old should consume 9 g/day). No guidelines have yet been established for the elderly or very ill. Patients with current constipation, vomiting, and abdominal pain should see a physician. Certain bulking agents are not commonly recommended with the prescription of opioids because the slow transit time mixed with larger stools may lead to severe constipation, pain, or obstruction.

The British Nutrition Foundation has recommended a minimum fiber intake of 12-24 g/day for healthy adults. [1]

Sources of fiber

Current recommendations suggest that adults consume 20-35 grams of dietary fiber per day, but the average American’s daily intake of dietary fiber is only 14-15 grams. [2] The ADA recommends trying to get most of your dietary fiber from foods you eat, as an important part of consuming variety, nutrition, synergy between nutrients, and possibly phytonutrients. Soluble fiber is found in many foods, including:

* legumes (peas, soybeans, and other beans)
* oats
* some fruits (particularly apples, bananas), and berries
* certain vegetables, such as broccoli and carrots
* root vegetables, such as potatoes and yams (the skins are insoluble fiber)
* psyllium seed (only about 2/3 soluble fiber).

Legumes also typically contain shorter-chain carbohydrates that are indigestible by the human digestive tract but which are digested by bacteria in the large intestine (colon), which is a cause of flatulence.

Sources of insoluble fiber include

* whole grain foods
* bran
* nuts and seeds
* vegetables such as green beans, cauliflower, zucchini, celery
* the skins of some fruits, including tomatoes

Fiber supplements

There are many types of soluble fiber supplements available to consumers for nutritional purposes, for the treatment of various gastrointestinal disorders, and for such possible health benefits as lowering cholesterol levels, reducing the risk of colon cancer, or losing weight. Soluble fiber supplements are particularly beneficial for Irritable Bowel Syndrome symptoms such as diarrhea and/or constipation, and abdominal pain (Van Vorous, 2000). Prebiotic soluble fiber supplements (acacia, FOS, inulin) are a promising area of treatment for inflammatory bowel disease (Seidner, 2005) such as Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis, and Clostridium difficile (May, 1994), due to the short-chain fatty acids they produce, and subsequent anti-inflammatory actions upon the bowel.

Psyllium husk

Psyllium seed husk (best known under the brand Metamucil). Psyllium husk may reduce the risk of heart disease by lowering cholesterol levels, and is known to help alleviate the symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome, though it often causes uncomfortable bloating. Psyllium husk is often labeled a “bulk-forming laxative,” which can be misleading, because it can also help diarrhea and it does not cause bowel dependency. Konsyl (Konsyl Pharmaceuticals) is another brand.

The FDA allows foods containing 0.75 g of psyllium husk fiber or 1.7 g of oat fiber to claim that they may be able to reduce the risk of heart disease (J Am Diet Assoc 2002).

Methylcellulose

Methylcellulose is created from the cell wall of plants. Sold as a powder, it is undigestible and doesn’t have calories that humans can use. Citrucel (by GlaxoSmithKline), and Celevac (Shire) are popular brands of methylcellulose.

Polycarbophil

Polycarbophil is also plant based and is similar to methylcellulose. Some research has found that it may cause less bloating than psyllium husk and is effective for treating constipation, diarrhea, and Irritable Bowel Syndrome (Danhof, 1982). Polycarbophil is found in a large number of consumer brands, including Wyeth Corporation’s Fibercon and Numark’s Equalactin. It is also typically labeled a “bulk-forming laxative.”

Vegetable gums

Vegetable gum fiber supplements are relatively new to the market. Often sold as a powder, vegetable gum fibers dissolve easily with no aftertaste. They are effective for the treatment of Irritable Bowel Syndrome (Parisi, 2002). Examples of vegetable gum fibers are guar gum (brand name Benefiber) or acacia (brand name Heather’s Tummy Fiber).

Some of the contents of this page were obtained from the Wikipedia, and other information and background was taken from the National Institutes of Health web-site, Pubmed.org.

Folic acid and folate (the anion form) are forms of a water-soluble B vitamin, sometimes called Vitamin B9. Folic acid or folate occurs naturally in food and can also be taken as dietary folic acid dietary supplements. Folate gets its name from the Latin word folium, or leaf.

Folate in Foods

Leaf vegetables such as spinach and turnip greens, dried beans and peas, fortified cereal products, and some other fruits and vegetables are rich sources of folate. Some breakfast cereals (ready-to-eat and others) are fortified with 25 percent or 100 percent of the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for folic acid. A table of selected food sources of folate and folic acid is shown below.

Recently[1] there have been debates in the United Kingdom and the United States about including folic acid additives in products such as bread and flour. Experts claim that this will decrease the number of babies with disabilities such as spina bifida.

Folic Acid History

A key observation of researcher Lucy Wills in 1931 led to the identification of folate as the nutrient needed to prevent the anemia of pregnancy. Dr. Wills demonstrated that the anemia could be corrected by a yeast extract. Folate was identified as the corrective substance in yeast extract in the late 1930s and was extracted from spinach leaves in 1941. It was synthesised in 1946.

Scientific Specifications for Folic Acid

* Folic acid chemical formula: C(19) H(19) N(7) O(6)
* Systemic Name: N-[4(2-Amino-4- hydroxy-pteridin-6-ylmethylamino)- benzoyl]-L(+)-glutamic acid.
* Other Names: pteroyl-L-glutamic acid, Vitamin B9, Vitamin M, Folacin
* Molar Mass: 441.40 g/mol
* Appearance: a yellow orange crystalline powder
* Solubility in Water: 8.5 g/100 ml at 20-deg C

Folic Acid Biological Roles

Folate is necessary for the production and maintenance of new cells.[1] This is especially important during periods of rapid cell division and growth such as infancy and pregnancy. Folate is needed to replicate DNA. It also helps prevent changes to DNA that may lead to cancer. Thus folate deficiency hinders DNA synthesis and cell division, affecting most clinically the bone marrow, a site of rapid cell turnover. Because RNA and protein synthesis are not hindered, large red blood cells called megaloblasts are produced, resulting in megaloblastic anemia.[2] Both adults and children need folate to make normal red blood cells and prevent anemia.[3]

Folic Acid Biochemistry

In the form of a series of tetrahydrofolate compounds, folate derivatives are substratess in a number of single carbon transfer reactions, and also are involved in the synthesis of dTMP (2′-deoxythymidine-5′-phosphate) from dUMP (2′-deoxyuridine-5′-phosphate).

The pathway in the formation of tetrahydrofolate (FH4) is the reduction of folate (F) to dihydrofolate (FH2) and then the subsequent reduction of dihydrofolate to tetrahydrofolate (FH4). Both these sequential reactions are carried out by dihydrofolate reductase EC 1.5.1.3.

Methylene tetrahydrofolate (CH2FH4) is formed from tetrahydrofolate by the addition of methylene groups from one of three carbon donors: formaldehyde, serine, or glycine. Methyl tetrahydrofolate (CH3ÐFH4) can be made from methylene tetrahydrofolate by reduction of the methylene group, and formyl tetrahydrofolate (CHO-FH4, folinic acid) is made by oxidation of methylene tetrahydrofolate.

In Other Words:

F -> FH2 -> FH4 -> CH2=FH4 -> 1-carbon chemistry

A number of drugs interfere with the biosynthesis of folic acid and tetrahydrofolate. Among them are the dihydrofolate reductase inhibitors (such as trimethoprim and pyrimethamine, the sulfonamides (competitive inhibitors of para-aminobenzoic acid in the reactions of dihydropteroate synthetase) and the anticancer drug methotrexate (inhibits both folate reductase and dihydrofolate reductase).

Recommended Dietary Allowance for Folate

The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is the average daily dietary intake level that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97 to 98 percent) healthy individuals in each life-stage and gender group. The 1998 RDAs for folate are expressed in a term called the Dietary Folate Equivalent (DFE). This was developed to help account for the differences in absorption of naturally-occurring dietary folate and the more bioavailable synthetic folic acid.[4]

The 1998 RDAs for folate expressed in micrograms (µg) of DFE for adults are:

* Men aged 19+ 400 micrograms/day
* Women aged 19+ 400 micrograms/day
* Pregnant women 600 micrograms/day
* Breast feeding women 500 micrograms/day

Folate Content of Common Foods

Food	Micrograms (μg)	% DV^
*Breakfast cereals fortified with 100% of the DV, ¾ cup	400	100
Beef liver, cooked, braised, 3 ounces	185	45
Cowpeas (blackeyes), immature, cooked, boiled, ½ cup	105	25
*Breakfast cereals, fortified with 25% of the DV, ¾ cup	100	25
Spinach, frozen, cooked, boiled, ½ cup	100	25
Great Northern beans, boiled, ½ cup	90	20
Asparagus, boiled, 4 spears	85	20
*Rice, white, long-grain, parboiled, enriched, cooked, ½ cup	65	15
Vegetarian baked beans, canned, 1 cup	60	15
Spinach, raw, 1 cup	60	15
Green peas, frozen, boiled, ½ cup	50	15
Broccoli, chopped, frozen, cooked, ½ cup	50	15
*Egg noodles, cooked, enriched, ½ cup	50	15
Broccoli, raw, 2 spears (each 5 inches long)	45	10
Avocado, raw, all varieties, sliced, ½ cup sliced	45	10
Peanuts, all types, dry roasted, 1 ounce	40	10
Lettuce, Romaine, shredded, ½ cup	40	10
Wheat germ, crude, 2 Tablespoons	40	10
Tomato Juice, canned, 6 ounces	35	10
Orange juice, chilled, includes concentrate, ¾ cup	35	10
Turnip greens, frozen, cooked, boiled, ½ cup	30	8
Orange, all commercial varieties, fresh, 1 small	30	8
*Bread, white, 1 slice	25	6
*Bread, whole wheat, 1 slice	25	6
Egg, whole, raw, fresh, 1 large	25	6
Cantaloupe, raw, ¼ medium	25	6
Papaya, raw, ½ cup cubes	25	6
Banana, raw, 1 medium	20	6

^ DV = Daily Value. DVs are reference numbers developed by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to help consumers determine if a food contains a lot or a little of a specific nutrient. The DV for folate is 400 micrograms. Most food labels do not list a food’s magnesium content. The percent DV (%DV) listed on the table indicates the percentage of the DV provided in one serving. A food providing 5% of the DV or less is a low source while a food that provides 10-19% of the DV is a good source. A food that provides 20% or more of the DV is high in that nutrient. It is important to remember that foods that provide lower percentages of the DV also contribute to a healthful diet. For foods not listed in this table, please refer to the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Nutrient Database Web site: http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/cgi-bin/nut_search.pl.

Folic Acid Deficiency

Signs of folic acid deficiency are often subtle. Diarrhea, loss of appetite, and weight loss can occur. Additional signs are weakness, sore tongue, headaches, heart palpitations, irritability, and behavioral disorders.[1] Women with folate deficiency who become pregnant are more likely to give birth to low birth weight and premature infants, and infants with neural tube defects. In adults, anemia is a sign of advanced folate deficiency. In infants and children, folate deficiency can slow growth rate. Some of these symptoms can also result from a variety of medical conditions other than folate deficiency. It is important to have a physician evaluate these symptoms so that appropriate medical care can be given.

A deficiency of folate can occur when your need for folate is increased, when dietary intake of folate is inadequate, and when your body excretes (or loses) more folate than usual. Medications that interfere with your body’s ability to use folate may also increase the need for this vitamin.

Folic acid or folate is deficient in many adults, and can be caused by these conditions:

* pregnancy and lactation (breastfeeding)
* alcohol abuse
* malabsorption, including celiac disease
* kidney dialysis
* liver disease
* certain anemias.

Medications can interfere with folate utilization, including:

* anticonvulsant medications (such as phenytoin, and primidone)
* metformin (sometimes prescribed to control blood sugar in type 2 diabetes)
* sulfasalazine (used to control inflammation associated with Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis)
* triamterene (a diuretic)
* methotrexate.

The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III 1988-91) and the Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (1994-96 CSFII) indicated that most adults did not consume adequate folate.[5][6] However, the folic acid fortification program in the United States has increased folic acid content of commonly eaten foods such as cereals and grains, and as a result diets of most adults now provide recommended amounts of folate equivalents.[7]

Folic Acid and Pregnancy

Folic acid is very important for all women who may become pregnant. Adequate folate intake during the periconceptional period, the time just before and just after a woman becomes pregnant, helps protect against a number of congenital malformations including neural tube defects.[8] Neural tube defects result in malformations of the spine (spina bifida), skull, and brain (anencephaly). The risk of neural tube defects is significantly reduced when supplemental folic acid is consumed in addition to a healthy diet prior to and during the first month following conception.[9][10] Women who could become pregnant are advised to eat foods fortified with folic acid or take supplements in addition to eating folate-rich foods to reduce the risk of some serious birth defects. Taking 400 micrograms of synthetic folic acid daily from fortified foods and/or supplements has been suggested. The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for folate equivalents for pregnant women is 600 micrograms.

Folic Acid Supplements And Masking Of B12 Deficiency

There has been concern about the interaction between vitamin B12 and folic acid.[citation needed] Folic acid supplements can correct the anemia associated with vitamin B12 deficiency. Unfortunately, folic acid will not correct changes in the nervous system that result from vitamin B12 deficiency. Permanent nerve damage could theoretically occur if vitamin B12 deficiency is not treated. Therefore, intake of supplemental folic acid should not exceed 1000 micrograms (µg, sometimes mcg) per day to prevent folic acid from masking symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency. In fact, evidence that such masking actually occurs is scarce, and there is no evidence that folic acid fortification in Canada or the US has increased the prevalence of vitamin B12 deficiency or its consequences.[citation needed]

Still it is important for older adults to be aware of the relationship between folic acid and vitamin B12 because they are at greater risk of having a vitamin B12 deficiency. If you are 50 years of age or older, ask your physician to check your B12 status before you take a supplement that contains folic acid.

Health Risk Of Too Much Folic Acid

The risk of toxicity from folic acid is low.[11] The Institute of Medicine has established a tolerable upper intake level (UL) for folate of 1,000 µg for adult men and women, and a UL of 800 µg for pregnant and lactating (breast-feeding) women less than 18 years of age. Supplemental folic acid should not exceed the UL to prevent folic acid from masking symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency.[12]

Some Current Issues And Controversies About Folate

Dietary fortification of folic acid

Since the discovery of the link between insufficient folic acid and neural tube defects (NTDs), governments and health organisations worldwide have made recommendations concerning folic acid supplementation for women intending to become pregnant. For example, the United States Public Health Service (see External links) recommends an extra 0.4 mg/day, which can be taken as a pill. However, many researchers believe that supplementation in this way can never work effectively enough since not all pregnancies are planned and not all women will comply with the recommendation.

This has led to the introduction in many countries of fortification, where folic acid is added to flour with the intention of everyone benefiting from the associated rise in blood folate levels. This is not uncontroversial, with issues having been raised concerning individual liberty, and the masking effect of folate fortification on pernicious anaemia (vitamin B12 deficiency). However, most North and South American countries now fortify their flour, along with a number of Middle Eastern countries and Indonesia. Mongolia and a number of ex-Soviet republics are amongst those having widespread voluntary fortification; about five more countries (including Morocco, the first African country) have agreed but not yet implemented fortification. Previously, the UK had decided not to fortify, mainly because of the vitamin B12 concern. However, this decision is currently being reconsidered by the Food Standards Agency. Thus far, no EU country has yet fortified.

In 1996, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) published regulations requiring the addition of folic acid to enriched breads, cereals, flours, corn meals, pastas, rice, and other grain products.[13][14][15] This ruling took effect 1998-01-01, and was specifically targeted to reduce the risk of neural tube birth defects in newborns.[16]

Since the folic acid fortification program took effect, fortified foods have become a major source of folic acid in the American diet. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia used data from 23 birth defect registries that cover about half of United States births and extrapolated their findings to the rest of the country. This data indicates that since the addition of folic acid in grain-based foods as mandated by the Food and Drug Administration, the rate of neural tube defects dropped by 25 percent in the United States.[17]

Conversely, in the early 2000s, the US FDA prevented the import of Vegemite from Australia, citing, as the reason, that the folic acid levels are too high. In 2005 it was impossible for Australian Expatriates to buy Vegemite in jars of larger than 113 grams (4 oz.).

Although folic acid does reduce the risk of birth defects, it is only one part of the picture and should not be considered a cure. Even women taking daily folic acid supplements have been known to have children with neural tube defects.

Folic Acid And Heart Disease

Low concentrations of folate, vitamin B12, or vitamin B6 may increase your level of homocysteine, an amino acid normally found in your blood. There is evidence that an elevated homocysteine level is an independent risk factor for heart disease and stroke.[18] The evidence suggests that high levels of homocysteine may damage coronary arteries or make it easier for blood clotting cells called platelets to clump together and form a clot.[19] However, there is currently no evidence available to suggest that lowering homocysteine with vitamins will reduce your risk of heart disease. Clinical intervention trials are needed to determine whether supplementation with folic acid, vitamin B12 or vitamin B6 can lower your risk of developing coronary heart disease.

As of 2006, studies have shown that giving folic acid to reduce levels of homocysteine does not result in clinical benefit and suggests that in combination with B12 may even increase some cardiovascular risks.[20][21][22]

Folic Acid And Cancer

Some evidence associates low blood levels of folate with a greater risk of cancer.[23] Folate is involved in the synthesis, repair, and functioning of DNA, our genetic map, and a deficiency of folate may result in damage to DNA that may lead to cancer.[24] Several studies have associated diets low in folate with increased risk of breast, pancreatic, and colon cancer.[25] Findings from a study of over 121,000 nurses suggested that long-term folic acid supplementation (for 15 years) was associated with a decreased risk of colon cancer in women 55 to 69 years of age.[26] However, associations between diet and disease do not indicate a direct cause. Researchers are continuing to investigate whether enhanced folate intake from foods or folic acid supplements may reduce the risk of cancer. Until results from such clinical trials are available, folic acid supplements should not be recommended to reduce the risk of cancer.

Folic Acid And Depression

Some evidence links low levels of folate with depression.[27] There is some limited evidence from randomised controlled trials that using folic acid in addition to antidepressant medication may have benefits.[28] However, the evidence is probably too limited at present for this to be a routine treatment recommendation.

Folic Acid And Methotrexate For Cancer

Folate is important for cells and tissues that rapidly divide.[1] Cancer cells divide rapidly, and drugs that interfere with folate metabolism are used to treat cancer. Methotrexate is a drug often used to treat cancer because it inhibits the production of the active form, tetrahydrofolate. Unfortunately, methotrexate can be toxic,[29][30][31] producing side effects such as inflammation in the digestive tract that make it difficult to eat normally.

Folinic acid is a form of folate that can help “rescue” or reverse the toxic effects of methotrexate.[32] Folinic acid is not the same as folic acid. Folic acid supplements have little established role in cancer chemotherapy.[33][34] There have been cases of severe adverse effects of accidental substitution of folic acid for folinic acid in patients receiving methotrexate cancer chemotherapy. It is important for anyone receiving methotrexate to follow medical advice on the use of folic or folinic acid supplements.

Folic Acid And Methotrexate For Non-Cancerous Diseases

Low dose methotrexate is used to treat a wide variety of non-cancerous diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, psoriasis, asthma, sarcoidoisis, primary biliary cirrhosis, and inflammatory bowel disease.[35] Low doses of methotrexate can deplete folate stores and cause side effects that are similar to folate deficiency. Both high folate diets and supplemental folic acid may help reduce the toxic side effects of low dose methotrexate without decreasing its effectiveness.[36][37] Anyone taking low dose methotrexate for the health problems listed above should consult with a physician about the need for a folic acid supplement.

Folic Acid Bibliography

* This article contains information from the public domain resource at http://www.cc.nih.gov/ccc/supplements/folate.html
* Herbert V. (1999). Folic Acid. Shils M, Olson J, Shike M, Ross AC, (Eds.). Nutrition in Health and Disease. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
* Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine (1998). Dietary reference intakes for thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, and choline / a report of the Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes and its Panel on Folate, Other B Vitamins, and Choline and Subcommittee on Upper Reference Levels of Nutrients. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. ISBN 0309065542.
* Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Report of the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2000. http://www.ars.usda.gov/dgac

Some of the information on this page was obtained from the Wikipedia, and the National Institutes of Health web-site Pubmed.org.

We recommend that most Americans take D-Alpha Tocopherol Vitamin-E and Gamma Tocopherol Vitamin-E on a daily basis to supplement the small amounts they may get from eating fruit, vegetables, beans and nuts. We have included Vitamin-E in our list of the 10 most important dietary supplements, which are: Fish Oil, Borage Seed Oil, Green Tea, Magnesium, Vitamin-C, Vitamin-D, Vitamin-E, DHEA, Folic Acid and Fiber.

Below we summarize some of the more conservative views and a few of the controversies surrounding this important nutrient. We feel that vitamin-e should be taken as a part of a well balanced diet that includes other important cofactor vitamins, minerals and a varied diet based on non-starchy vegetables, fresh fruits, lean grass-fed or free-range meats, beans, nuts, seeds, and many herbal teas and spices, avoiding dairy products, sugars, omega-6 vegable oils, and processed foods.

Very recent research about Vitamin-E indicates important roles for both the alpha and gamma types of the vitamin, each of which plays an important but different role in our antioxidant metabolism pathways. Taking large amounts of the alpha d- or dl- tocopherol without taking the vital gamma types of tocopherol may result in blocking an of the gamma that we normally eat in vegetables, beans and peas. Evidently, alpha tocopherol uses up the liver’s transport system and prevents gamma tocopherol from entering the body’s systems where it can be used. This results in slightly higher risks for some kinds of disease. Even though this elevated risk is only very, very small, and only shown for a few people in vast populations taking alpha tocopherol, it is wise to take BOTH kinds of vitamin-e. We suggest you consider taking at least 200mg per day of the gamma form of tocopherol, plus at least 400mg of the alpha form of tocopherol. And as always, be sure to talk to your dietitian or physician about this and all your health, diet and exercise choices.

What is Vitamin E?

Tocopherol, or Vitamin E, is a fat-soluble vitamin in eight forms that is an important antioxidant. Vitamin E is often used in skin creams and lotions because it is believed to play a role in encouraging skin healing and reducing scarring after injuries such as burns.

Natural vitamin E exists in eight different forms or isomers, four tocopherols and four tocotrienols. All isomers have a chromanol ring, with a hydroxyl group which can donate a hydrogen atom to reduce free radicals and a hydrophobic side chain which allows for penetration into biological membranes. There is an alpha, beta, gamma and delta form of both the tocopherols and tocotrienols, determined by the number of methyl groups on the chromanol ring. Each form has its own biological activity, the measure of potency or functional use in the body.

Sources Of Vitamin E

In foods, the most abundant sources of vitamin E are vegetable oils such as sunflower, canola, corn, soybean and olive oil. Nuts, sunflower seeds, seabuckthorn berries, and wheat germ are also good sources. Other sources of vitamin E are whole grains, fish, peanut butter, and green leafy vegetables. Fortified breakfast cereals are also an important source of vitamin E in the United States. Although originally extracted from wheat germ oil, most natural vitamin E supplements are now derived from vegetable oils, usually soybean oil.

Good Food Sources of Alpha Tocopherol
Amounts of Vitamin-E, in Milligrams (mg)
vitamin-e chemical formula, alpha tocopherol

1. Wheat germ oil, 1 tablespoon = 20.3
2. Almonds, dry roasted, 1 ounce = 7.4
3. Sunflower seed kernels, dry roasted, 1 ounce = 6.0
4. Sunflower oil, over 60% linoleic, 1 tablespoon = 5.6
5. Safflower oil, over 70% oleic, 1 tablespoon = 4.6
6. Hazelnuts, dry roasted, 1 ounce = 4.3
7. Peanut butter, smooth style, vitamin and mineral fortified, 2 Tablespoons = 4.2
8. Peanuts, dry roasted, 1 oz = 2.2
9. Corn oil (salad or vegetable oil), 1 tablespoon = 1.9
10. Spinach, frozen, chopped, boiled, ½ cup = 1.6
11. Broccoli, frozen, chopped, boiled, ½ cup = 1.2
12. Soybean oil, 1 tablespoon = 1.3
13. Kiwi, 1 medium fruit without skin = 1.1
14. Mango, raw, without refuse, ½ cup sliced = 0.9
15. Spinach, raw, 1 cup = 0.6

Forms Of Vitamin E

Alpha-tocopherol is traditionally recognized as the most active form of vitamin E in humans, and is a powerful biological antioxidant. The measurement of “vitamin E” activity in international units (IU) was based on fertility enhancement by the prevention of spontaneous abortions in pregnant rats relative to alpha tocopherol. It increases naturally to about 150% of normal in the maternal circulation during human pregnancies. 1 IU of vitamin E is defined as the biological equivalent of 0.667 milligrams of d-alpha-tocopherol, or of 1 milligram of dl-alpha-tocopherol acetate. The other isomers are slowly being recognized as research begins to elucidate their additional roles in the human body. Many naturopathic and orthomolecular medicine advocates suggest that vitamin E supplements contain at least 20% by weight of the other natural vitamin E isomers. Commercially available blends of natural vitamin E include “mixed tocopherols” and “high gamma tocopherol” formulas. Also selenium, Coenzyme Q10, and ample vitamin C have been shown to be essential cofactors of natural tocopherols.

Tocotrienols, with four d- isomers, also belong to the vitamin E family. The four tocotrienols have structures corresponding to the four tocopherols, except with an unsaturated bond in each of the three isoprene units that form the hydrocarbon tail. Tocopherols have a saturated phytyl tail.

Antioxidants such as vitamin E act to protect cells against the effects of free radicals, which are potentially damaging by-products of the body’s metabolism. Free radicals can cause cell damage that may contribute to the development of cardiovascular disease and cancer. Vitamin C and other anti-oxidants recycle vitamin E end-products back into effective suppressors of free radicals. Studies are underway to determine whether vitamin E might help prevent or delay the development of those chronic diseases.

Commercial vitamin E supplements can be classified into several distinct categories: fully synthetic vitamin E, “d,l-alpha-tocopherol”, the most inexpensive, most commonly sold supplement form usually as the acetate ester; semisynthetic “natural source” vitamin E esters, the “natural source” forms used in tablets and multiple vitamins; highly fractionated natural d-alpha tocopherol; less fractionated “natural mixed tocopherols”; high gamma-tocopherol fraction supplements; and tocotrienol supplements.

Synthetic vitamin E, usually marked as d,l-tocopherol or d,l tocopheryl acetate, with 50% d-alpha tocopherol moiety and 50% l-alpha-tocopherol moiety, as synthesized by an earlier process is now actually manufactured as all-racemic alpha tocopherol, with only about one alpha tocopherol molecule in 8 molecules as actual d-alpha tocpherol. The synthetic form is not as active as the natural alpha tocopherol form. The 1950’s thalidomide disaster with numerous severe birth defects is a common example of d- vs l- epimer forms type problem with synthesized racemic mixtures. Information on any side effects of the synthetic vitamin E epimers is not readily available. Naturopathic and orthomolecular medicine advocates have long considered the synthetic vitamin E forms to be with little or no merit for cancer, circulatory and heart diseases.

Semisynthetic “natural source” vitamin E, manufacturers convert the common natural beta, gamma and delta tocopherol isomers into esters using acetic or succinic acid and add methyl groups to yield d-alpha tocopheryl esters such as d-alpha tocopheryl acetate or d-alpha tocopheryl succinate. These tocopheryl esters are more stable and are easy to use in tablets and multiple vitamin pills. Because only alpha tocopherols were officially counted as “vitamin E” in supplements, refiners and manufacturers faced enormous economic pressure to esterify and methylate the other natural tocopherol isomers, d-beta-, d-gamma- and d-delta-tocopherol into d-alpha tocopheryl acetate or succinate. Tocopheryl nicotinate and tocopheryl linolate esters are used in cosmetics and some pharmaceuticals. In the healthy human body, the semisynthetic forms are easily de-esterified over several days, primarily in the liver, but not for common problems in premature babies, aged or ill patients.

The Recommended Dietary Allowance for vitamin E is based on the alpha-tocopherol form because it is the most active, or usable, form as originally tested. Results of two national surveys, the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III 1988-91) and the Continuing Survey of Food Intakes of Individuals (1994 CSFII) indicated that the dietary intake of most Americans does not provide the recommended intake for vitamin E. However, a 2000 Institute of Medicine (IOM) report on vitamin E states that intake estimates of vitamin E may be low because energy and fat intake is often underreported in national surveys and because the kind and amount of fat added during cooking is often not known. The IOM states that most North American adults get enough vitamin E from their normal diets to meet current recommendations. However, they do caution individuals who consume low fat diets because vegetable oils are such a good dietary source of vitamin E. “Low-fat diets can substantially decrease vitamin E intakes if food choices are not carefully made to enhance alpha-tocopherol intakes”. Vitamin E supplements are absorbed best when taken with meals.

Factors In Vitamin E Deficiency

There are three specific situations when a vitamin E deficiency is likely to occur. It is seen in persons who cannot absorb dietary fat, has been found in premature, very low birth weight infants (birth weights less than 1500 grams, or 3 1/2 pounds), and is seen in individuals with rare disorders of fat metabolism. A vitamin E deficiency is usually characterized by neurological problems due to poor (bad) nerve conduction.

Individuals who cannot absorb fat may require a vitamin E supplement because some dietary fat is needed for the absorption of vitamin E from the gastrointestinal tract. Anyone diagnosed with cystic fibrosis, individuals who have had part or all of their stomach removed, and individuals with malabsorptive problems such as Crohn’s disease may not absorb fat and should discuss the need for supplemental vitamin E with their physician. People who cannot absorb fat often pass greasy stools or have chronic diarrhea.

Very low birth weight infants may be deficient in vitamin E. These infants are usually under the care of a neonatologist, a pediatrician specializing in the care of newborns, who evaluates and treats the exact nutritional needs of premature infants.

Abetalipoproteinemia is a rare inherited disorder of fat metabolism that results in poor absorption of dietary fat and vitamin E. The vitamin E deficiency associated with this disease causes problems such as poor transmission of nerve impulses, muscle weakness, and degeneration of the retina that can cause blindness. Individuals with abetalipoproteinemia may be prescribed special vitamin E supplements by a physician to treat this disorder.

Also, in adults, erythrocyte membrane fragility results as the erythrocytes are oxidized.

Vitamin E And Heart Disease

Preliminary research has led to a widely held belief that vitamin E may help prevent or delay coronary heart disease. Researchers are fairly certain that oxidative modification of LDL-cholesterol (sometimes called “bad” cholesterol) promotes blockages in coronary arteries that may lead to atherosclerosis and heart attacks. Vitamin E may help prevent or delay coronary heart disease by limiting the oxidation of LDL-cholesterol. Vitamin E also may help prevent the formation of blood clots, which could lead to a heart attack. Observational studies have associated lower rates of heart disease with higher vitamin E intake. A study of approximately 90,000 nurses suggested that the incidence of heart disease was 30% to 40% lower among nurses with the highest intake of vitamin E from diet and supplements. The range of intakes from both diet and supplements in this group was 21.6 to 1,000 IU (32 to 1,500 mg), with the median intake being 208 IU (139 mg). A 1994 review of 5,133 Finnish men and women aged 30 - 69 years suggested that increased dietary intake of vitamin E was associated with decreased mortality (death) from heart disease.

But even though these observations are promising, randomized clinical trials raise questions about the role of vitamin E supplements in heart disease. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation (HOPE) Study followed almost 10,000 patients for 4.5 years who were at high risk for heart attack or stroke. In this intervention study the subjects who received 265 mg (400) IU of vitamin E daily did not experience significantly fewer cardiovascular events or hospitalizations for heart failure or chest pain when compared to those who received a sugar pill. The researchers suggested that it is unlikely that the vitamin E supplement provided any protection against cardiovascular disease in the HOPE study. This study is continuing, to determine whether a longer duration of intervention with vitamin E supplements will provide any protection against cardiovascular disease.

Vitamin E And Cancer

Antioxidants such as vitamin E help protect against the damaging effects of free radicals, which may contribute to the development of chronic diseases such as cancer. Vitamin E also may block the formation of nitrosamines, which are carcinogens formed in the stomach from nitrites consumed in the diet. It also may protect against the development of cancers by enhancing immune function. Unfortunately, human trials and surveys that tried to associate vitamin E with incidence of cancer have been generally inconclusive.

Some evidence associates higher intake of vitamin E with a decreased incidence of prostate cancer and breast cancer. Some studies correlate additional cofactors, such as specific vitamin E isomers, e.g. gamma-tocopherol, and other nutrients, e.g. selenium, with dramatic risk reductions in prostate cancer. However, an examination of the effect of dietary factors, including vitamin E, on incidence of postmenopausal breast cancer in over 18,000 women from New York State did not associate a greater vitamin E intake with a reduced risk of developing breast cancer.

A study of women in Iowa provided evidence that an increased dietary intake of vitamin E may decrease the risk of colon cancer, especially in women under 65 years of age. On the other hand, vitamin E intake was not statistically associated with risk of colon cancer in almost 2,000 adults with cancer who were compared to controls without cancer. At this time there is limited evidence to recommend vitamin E supplements for the prevention of cancer.

Recent studies also show that vitamin E acts as an effective free radical scavenger and can lower the incidence of lung cancer in smokers. The effects are opposite to that of the clinical trials based on administering carotenoid to male smokers, that resulted in increased risk of lung cancer. Hence vitamin E is an effective antagonist to the oxidative stress that is imposed by high carotenoids in certain patients.

Vitamin E And Cataracts

A cataract is a condition of clouding of the tissue of the lens of the eye. They increase the risk of disability and blindness in aging adults. Antioxidants are being studied to determine whether they can help prevent or delay cataract growth. Observational studies have found that lens clarity, which is used to diagnose cataracts, was better in regular users of vitamin E supplements and in persons with higher blood levels of vitamin E. A study of middle aged male smokers, however, did not demonstrate any effect from vitamin E supplements on the incidence of cataract formation. The effects of smoking, a major risk factor for developing cataracts, may have overridden any potential benefit from the vitamin E, but the conflicting results also indicate a need for further studies before researchers can confidently recommend extra vitamin E for the prevention of cataracts. It is important to note that the term “cataract” may be used in common parlance for an opacity involving any tissue of the eye, for example a corneal scar. Thus a character in theater or on televsion who is blind from cataracts might have white instead of clear corneas, covering over the iris and pupil. Since the lens is behind the pupil, real cataracts are difficult to see without special instrumentation, so people with cataracts have rather normally appearing eyes.

Vitamin E And Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s disease is a wasting disease of the brain. An observational trial conducted by The Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health found that when vitamin E is taken daily in large doses (400-1000IU) in combination with vitamin C (500-1000mg) the onset of Alzheimer’s was reduced between 64 and 78%. External Link - Johns Hopkins press release

Vitamin E And Parkinson’s Disease

In May 2005, The Lancet Neurology published a study suggesting that vitamin E may help protect against Parkinson’s disease. Individuals with moderate to high intakes of dietary vitamin E were found to have a lower risk of Parkinson’s. No conclusion was drawn about whether supplemental vitamin E has the same effect, however.

Health Risks Of Too Much Vitamin E

The health risk of too much vitamin E is disputed. A recent review of the safety of vitamin E in the elderly indicated that taking vitamin E supplements for up to four months at doses of 530 mg or 800 IU (35 times the current RDA) had no significant adverse effect on general health, body weight, levels of body proteins, lipid levels, liver or kidney function, thyroid hormones, amount or kinds of blood cells, and bleeding time. Even though this study provides evidence that taking a vitamin E supplement containing 530 mg or 800 IU for four months is safe, the long term safety of vitamin E supplementation has not been authoritatively tested. However, “toxicity symptoms have not been reported even at intakes of 800 IU per kilogram of body weight daily for 5 months” according to the Food and Nutrition Board (Rosenberg, et al), an amount that corresponds to 60,000 IU per day for a 75 kg adult.

The Institute of Medicine has set an upper tolerable intake level for vitamin E at 1,000 mg (1,500 IU) for any form of supplementary alpha-tocopherol per day because the nutrient can act as an anticoagulant and increase the risk of bleeding problems. Upper tolerable intake levels “represent the maximum intake of a nutrient that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects in almost all individuals in the general population”.

A 2004 metastudy at Johns Hopkins, loudly played in the media, questioned the benefit of high dosage alpha tocopherol. Others have stated that many favorable reports were improperly excluded, that one flawed study contributed the most negative statistics, and have suggested that several selection criteria introduced significant bias with a resultant inaccurate statement. Of the 19 studies utilized (of 36 originally), only one study clearly used a “natural source” isomer, a d-alpha tocopheryl ester, (more correctly: R,R,R-alpha tocopheryl since 1981) instead of the commonly used synthetic (all-racemic) alpha tocopheryl acetate composed from all 8 alpha tocopherol epimers. The generalization of results from all-racemic alpha-tocopheryl esters as “vitamin E” about the performance of the natural d-alpha, d-beta, d-gamma and d-delta tocopherol alcohol isomers is overbroad and a frequent subreption in the literature.

The Shute brothers, Canadian doctors, and others frequently prescribed d-alpha tocopherol for tens of thousands of cardiac patients, in many cases for decades, in the range of 450-3200 IU/day. The Shute brothers did carefully limit the amount administered to 90-150 IU/day for chronic rheumatic heart disease, and used lower starting dosages first. No information in the metastudy addressed natural vitamin E blends, mixed tocopherols, in use since before 1940.

Much of the contents of this page was provided by the Wikipedia. Other information was obtained from the Pubmed.org web-site of the National Instututes of Health.

Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)

We include Vitamin-C in our list of The Top 10 Most Important Dietary Supplements, which are: Fish Oil, Borage Seed Oil, Green Tea, Magnesium, Vitamin-C, Vitamin-D, Vitamin-E, DHEA, Folic Acid and Fiber. These 10 diet and health pills help correct major deficiencies in the average American’s diet. We feel that most Americans should take an “optimum dose” of from between one to three grams (1,000 to 3,000 milligrams) of ascorbic acid or vitamin c every day. Younger, healthy people may only need the smaller dose. Older people, diabetics, athletes and others who engage in vigorous stressful exercise, and people who suffer from chronic inflammatory disease such as heart disease, cancer, Alzheimer’s may consider taking the larger dosages.

Vitamin-C is a cofactor in many of the body’s metabolic processes, including the production of energy inside cells, and the production of vital anti-inflammatory prostaglandin series-1 and series-3 molecules. Together with the B Vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B6, B12 and Folate or folic acid) and the cofactor minerals copper, zinc, manganese, magnesium, calcium and selenium, Vitamin C helps control inflammation in the body. It also serves to re-charge Vitamin-E, once it has lost an electron as it plays its role in antioxidation of LDL cholesterol and other oxidized molecules. As a synergistic player in metabolism and health, it is essential that Vitamin-C not be allowed to fall below ideal levels.

What is Vitamin-C?

Vitamin-C is a water soluble anti-oxidant vitamin that provides several vitally important, essential functions in your body. Some animals build Vitamin-C from foods, but the human body cannot make this vitamin from other nutrients. As a result, you must consume Vitamin-C every day to maintain health, either from foods or supplements.

New research on Vitamin-C has revealed how it functions in your body. It is directly involved as the leading actor in some important processes, and it contributes essential roles as a supporting actor in dozens of others.

Vitamin-C is the most popular natural health supplement in the world. More people take Vitamin-C than any other vitamin, including vitamin-e, vitamin-d, or even the popular B vitamins. Its popularity also towers over any herb, plant extract, or mineral supplement pill.

Another name for Vitamin-C is ascorbic acid. The name ascorbic acid comes from its ability to prevent Vitamin-C deficiency, which results in the disease known as scurvy. The term “ascorbic” means without scurvy. Only very small amounts of Vitamin-C are needed to prevent scurvy — about 10/1000’s of a gram per day. There are about 26 grams per ounce, so that is indeed a very small amount — written as 10mg. You could get this much from eating only one slice, about 1/6 of an orange or small grapefruit per day. But Vitamin-C’s role in health goes well beyond the prevention of scurvy. It is involved in hundreds of important metabolic reactions and body processes.

As a water soluble vitamin, Vitamin-C does its work mostly as it is circulated in the blood, or inside the watery areas of cells. It cannot penetrate the fatty-cell walls themselves, surrounding most tissues and organs. It also cannot penetrate the fatty structures of cholesterol, triglycerides and other lipids — vitamin-e does that job. It does much work directly with the red blood cells, white blood cells, cholesterol, triglycerides and other blood lipids, and in recharging other anti-oxidants like vitamin-e, alpha lipoic acid and glutathione. Those 3 anti-oxidants are fat soluble and can work in or outside of cells in many roles to fight free radicals, neutralize oxidized LDL cholesterol and destroy intracellular oxidizing agents. Due to its power to recharge other anti-oxidants, Vitamin-C plays an important part all through the body; in the blood, in the liver, in the heart and brain, and inside and outside of cells in all your organs.

List of Vitamin-C Benefits

Direct and indirect roles for Vitamin-C in health include:

• Neutralizes free radicals in the blood and liver that are the normal by-product of your metabolism
• Donates an electron to recycle and re-activate vitamin-e, making it live to do its work up to 20-times longer
• Competes with Lipoprotein(a) to bind with artery tissues, preventing plaque build-up
• Helps strengthen cell walls by aiding the maintenance of the actual structure of wall itself, enabling them to better resist invasions from viruses and mechanical stresses
• Involved in neutralizing oxidized LDL-C molecules by regenerating vitamin-e, which can reduce the build-up of arterial plaques, thus improving many cardiovascular disease conditions
• Reduces risks of cancer by blocking certain growth promoting pro-tumor processes, encouraging normal “apoptis” or programmed cell death
• Used by white blood cells to enable killing bacteria and virus infective agents
• Improves your ability to handle the effects of physical and psychological stress
• Aids in the formation of collagen and cartilage, which is important for the formation of bones, tendons, joints and epidermal skin tissues
• Accelerates your body’s ability to rebuild connective tissues after stress of exercise or injury, and to recover from wounds, wear and tear of joints or tendons, or to repair skin abrasions

Scientific Support for Vitamin-C Nutritional Supplements

ANTI-OXIDANT ROLE — Vitamin-C neutralizes the electronic charge of highly ionized free radicals, by donating one of its electrons to the free radicle molecule. In doing so, Vitamin-C becomes itself a weaker free radical, and would be destroyed unless it is later recharged by another anti-oxidant. Many anti-oxidants can recharge Vitamin-C to enable it to go back to work, including alpha lipoic acid and glutathione, among others.

FREE RADICALS — During the burning or oxidation of glucose and in the course of metabolizing other nutrients, the body generates highly charged oxidizing molecules known as free radicals. These positively charged molecules can rip electrons out of the molecules of anything they touch, unless they are first electronically neutralized by an anti-oxidant like Vitamin-C. Damage by free radicals results in the gradual wearing out or aging of all tissues in the body. Prevention of free radical damage is one of the major goals of health maintenance strategies.

Vitamin-C AND THE COMMON COLD — Since the publication of Dr. Linus Pauling’s 1940 book, “Vitamin C and the Common Cold”, hundreds of studies have been published on Vitamin-C’s ability to prevent, improve or reverse various infections — cancer, heart disease, diabetes, stroke, Alzheimer’s, and many other diseases. Most of the study results have demonstrated beneficial results from taking Vitamin-C compared to placebo. However, a few results have failed to show significant affects of Vitamin-C on some diseases. Most of those negative results were financed wholy or in major part by pharaceutical or another interested party. Some of the negative studies used very low doses of the vitamin, or failed to include it in a synergistic combination with needed synergistic co-factors (vitamin-E, B-6, magnesium, etc.). As a result many of these negative studies were flawed. These so-called negative results have received tremendous publicity in radio, TV, newspapers and popular magazines — all of whom receive millions and millons of dollars from pharmaceutical drug advertising. However, despite media discouragements, most American’s continue to take this vitamin. They know from their experience that Vitamin-C can help them feel and look better, and helps improve many diseases.

The common experience of Americans backs up the overall positive reviews of the effectiveness of taking Vitamin-C supplements. Most authorities do continue to believe that taking Vitamin-C supplements is wise for many if not most people, in addition to eating a diet of foods high in anti-oxidants, fiber and moderate in omega-6 fats, animal fats, and avoiding sugary, or simple starches in foods.

Vitamin-C appears to lessen the severity of many viral infections, shorten the lost time from work, and to accelerate recovery time. It also appears to be valuable in an effort to prevent the formation of arterial plaques from high amounts of LDL cholesterol by neutralizing oxidize LDL-C before it can bind to artery walls or be ingested by macrophages to be included into existing plaques in the inner wall tissues of the arteries. Vitamin-C does improve the appearance of small lines in aged or damaged skin, adding to a younger look and preserving the skin’s protective role in health. Vitamin-C together with some other important co-factors like glucosamine and chondroitin, aid in the maintenance of collagen, cartilage, or joint tissues, and in the prevention or improvement of arthritis.

How Much Vitamin-C Should You Take in Supplements?

The FDA says the RDA for Vitamin-C is now between 75 and 90mg/day. Men are supposed to get at least the 90mg/day minimum in their diet. That would be the minimum. However, if you are interested in taking the optimum amount of Vitamin-C instead of just the minumum, you may want to consider taking at least 250mg/day, up to 1,000mg/day. To fight infections, chronic diseases, or to offset high stress, you may need several times that amount per day. If you are healthy, you will attain a full body saturation of Vitamin-C at around 1,000 milligrams per day. Since your body tends to reject more than about 200mg at a time, you should take several small 200mg doses scattered out through the day to total the amount you need. Or, you may wish to buy the timed-release or extended release type pills that do that for you.

What Are the Best Food Sources of Vitamin-C?

Sources of Vitamin-C include citrus fruits like tangerines, oranges, grapefruit, lemons and limes, as well as most other fruits and vegetables such as tomatoes, strawberries and other brightly colored berries, cherries, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, peppers and cantaloupe. Vitamin-C often is damaged or destroyed completely when you cook food at high temperatures. It is best to eat a wide variety of fresh, raw or lightly cooked foods to maximize your Vitamin-C intake from food.

Vitamin-C Safety and Side Effects

Even very high doses of Vitamin-C are considered safe among most people. Any unneeded Vitamin-C is eliminated by the body in the urine. People who have chronic diseases or acute infections are able to absorb and use several grams of Vitamin-C per day without excreting much Vitamin-C at all, and suffer no apparent side effects of these very high doses. However, doses above 1000mg/day among health people for long periods of time, have in fact resulted in some people complaining about diarrhea, or cramps and nausea in the gastrointestinal tract. A very few people who take very high doses of Vitamin-C for long periods of time may have a higher risk of developing kidney stones.

Much of the contents of this page was provided by the Wikipedia. Other information was obtained from the Pubmed.org web-site of the National Instututes of Health.

Borage Seed Oil is the second of our list of The 10 Most Important Dietary Supplements, which are: Fish Oil, Borage Seed Oil, Green Tea, Magnesium, Vitamin-C, Vitamin-D, Vitamin-E, DHEA, Folic Acid and Fiber. These 10 diet and health pills help correct major deficiencies in the average American’s diet.

Together with a balanced diet (based on non-starchy vegetables, lean meats from turkey, chicken, and fish, and fresh whole fruits and nuts, beans and seeds), Borage Seed Oil can lead to significant improvements in health. They include dramatic weight loss when needed, and imrovement or reversal of major diseases. The benefits stem from reductions in low-level inflammation. Then, less inflammation leads to lower insulin resistance.

How Borage Seed Oil Improves Your Health:

Borage oil contains an essential fatty acid called GLA that your body does not make efficiently for itself. The GLA or gamma linolenic acid, is easy converted into DGLA or dihomagamma linolenic acid. From DHLA, the body rapidly makes PGE-1 or Series-1 Prostaglandins. These PGE-1 molecules are about 1/2 of your inflammation-fighting capability. Without them, you have a persistent tendancy toward inflammation, which often leads to insulin resistance, obesity and many deadly diseases.

GLA Gamma Linolenic Acid — The three best sources of GLA are Borage Seed Oil, Black Currant Oil, and Evening Primrose Oil. Borage Seed Oil (usually about 24% GLA) contains about 5% more GLA than Black Currant Oils, and more than twice as much GLA per capsule as Evening Primrose Oil (which usually contains about 10% GLA). As a result of its high percentage of GLA, when you take Borage Seed Oil, you end up taking less of the undesirable Omega-6 (lenoleic acid) vegetable oils. Omega-6 oils are most of the remainder of the oil contained in each of the supplements. GLA is the immediate precursor to your body’s production of PGE-1 or Prostaglandin Series 1, which is vital to the body’s ability to handle blood lipids, cholesterol and triglycerides, and amounts to about 1/2 of your total inflammation fighting arsenal. We recommend Borage Seed Oil, because it is easier to take to get the needed amount of GLA than the other sources. However, many studies have also supported somewhat larger daily doses of Evening Primrose Oil.

Two Ways Delta-6 Deficiency Happens

1. Inherited Problem Making Delta-6 Enzyme

Extra Thymidine Molecule - in D6D-Making Gene - This or similar genetic mutations may be a major cause underlying inherited types of cardiovascular, diabetic, cancerous, insulin resistant, and/or inflammation associated diseases. The frequency of this kind of mutation is still being investigated. However, since inflammatory and insulin resistant conditions add up to 73% of all fatal diseases annually, any significant contributing factor to inflammation or insulin resistance is a very serious matter.

2. Dietary or Disease & Lifestyle Factors
Producing Functional Delta-6 Deficiency

When people without inherited deficiencies do in fact make enough Delta-6, the enzyme can be blocked from being utilized by many factors relating to their diet, disease, and substance abuse or other lifestyle, behavior or habits. (See “Hypoglycemia and Essential Fatty Acids”, Hypoglycemic Association Newsletter, September, 1996, Pgs. 7-13.

• Foods rich in saturated fats such as wholemilk and certain milk proteins (peptides)
• Foods rich in cholesterol like red meat, shell fish, dairy, milk and eggs
• Trans-fatty acids used in margarines, processed foods and candies
• Stress hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol
• Low levels of zinc, magnesium, vitamins B6 or B3, and vitamin C (transport mechanism may be faulty in diabetes) from eating processed, refined foods
• Alcohol - more than 8-ounces of wine daily, or equivalent in beer or whisky
• Allergies and other atopic conditions such eczema
• High blood sugar in diabetes & hypoglycemics
• Excessive circulating insulin levels, from insulin resistance
• Advancing Age
• Viral infections: Influenza, Pneumonia, Hepatitis, HIV, etc.
• Cancer, Tuberculosis
• Many Drug Interactions, such as lithium, phenytoin, aspirin, other NSAIDS and steroids
• Very large amounts of Omega-3 fatty acids (from fish oil or flax seed oil)

How Deficiency Develops — In many individuals, the ability to manufacture or use the vital enzyme Delta-6 Desaturase (D6D) is seriously degraded. (1) In some cases, it appears that a simple mutation of a gene that controls the expression or manufacture of D6D happens in at least some people.¹ One way this happens is that a single thymidine molecule is inserted into the D6D making gene, which results in a decrease of 80-90% in the amount of delta6 desaturase produced. This person will become very inflammed, and as years go by, they will likely suffer from cancer, heart disease and many other serious ailments. (2) In other people who do not have such genetic problems, dietary and environmental factors block the utilization of D6D. Factors include diet habits such as high alcohol use, trans-fatty acids from margarines and other foods, animal fats from red meats, milk, cancer, certain infections such as tuberculosis. If you don’t have enough D6D enzyme, you can’t ever make enough GLA out of Linoleic Acids from Omega-6 vegetable oils like safflower, corn oil, etc., and therefore the Omega-6 fats you eat become Arachidonic Acid (AA) instead of GLA. This advances metabolic disease and insulin resistance. As a result, the Lenoleic Omega-6 fats you eat cannot be converted into the “good” prostaglandins that fight inflammation and control cholesterol and obesity. You get obese, develop high blood pressure, high LDL-C cholesterol, high triglycerides, low HDL-C, etc. Some scientists have suggested that a simple D6D deficiency due to genetic or dietary factors is the major underlying cause of most metabolic disease, including most heart disease, cancers, diabetes and other insulin resistant, inflammatory diseases. As a result, they recommend supplementation of the diet with direct sources of GLA that do not need D6D for conversion. GLA from Borage Seed Oil or Evening Primrose oil enables the body to produce Prostaglandin series 1, which can help reverse existing or developing metabolic diseases related to insulin resistance.*

Best Gamma Linolenic Acid Sources: The best sources of GLA are Borage Seed Oil (24%), Black Currant Oil (19%) and Evening Primrose Oil (9%). As you can see, Borage Seed Oil contains just a bit more GLA than does Black Currant Oil, and almost 2-1/2 times as much GLA as Evening Primrose Oil. If you want to take fewer pills, take Borage Seed Oil. The cost per pill is usually about the same, but you may want to shop around. We’ve found a month’s supply of Borage Seed Oil, which is about (60) 1,200mg capsules containing 300mg of GLA per capsule, usually costs between $10-$15. Brands we like include Now Foods, Vitamin Shoppe, Twin Labs, and Life Extension Foundation. Life Extension’s includes Sesame Seed Lignans, which are an added benefit due to their power to limit the delta-5 desaturase conversion of GLA into AA arachidonic acid and the resulting increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines. See our page on Sesame Seed Lignans for more information.

How Much Borage Seed Oil GLA Gamma Linolenic Acid Should You Take per Day? Take at least 2 large 1,000 to 1,200mg capsules of Borage Seed Oil per day, one in the morning and evening. Ensure that each capsule contains at least 245mg of the GLA active ingredient. A small amount of Vitamin-E should also be listed on the label to prevent possible oxidation of the vital fatty acid ingredients during storage. Very sick, obese or people with high levels of C-Reactive Protein should consider taking up to double the regular daily dose of GLA.

Safety Issues: - Borage seed oil is generally considered safe. You should be concerned about its freshness, and always refrigerate it after opening. Look for brands with a small amount of Vitamin-E added to the capsule as a preservative. Borage oil acts moderately as an anti-clotting agent or blood thinner. While usually considered advantageous, its anti-clotting actions may add to the thinning power of other blood thinners if you are takng them. As always, we recommend you consult your doctor or other health care professional before adding this or any other supplement to your diet. You may want to print this page to show to your phsician, dietitian or other authorized health professional, as many will not have had time to read this much detail on the subject due to their busy schedules.*

Some of ClubWeightLoss.com’s Choices
for Borage Seed Oil GLA Supplement Products at Amazon.com WHERE TO BUY — We don’t make or sell vitamins or supplements, but we will get a small percentage if you buy your choice of products after clicking the link to Amazon.com’s store above. Prices are quite competitive at Amazon.com, and their selection of brand names is generally excellent. We appreciate your support.Scientific Research Supporting Gamma Lenolenic Acid (GLA) Supplementation — (1) For a discussion of GLA supplementation and its role in helping control or improve metabolic, insulin resistant or inflammatory disease read this PDF report written by Jur Plesmon in the Hypoglycemic Health Association Newsletter, September, 1996. (2) Read over 45 scientific studies reported at Pubmed.org (the web page of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, NIH) reporting research about Gamma Linolenic Acid (GLA) and Inflammation. (3) Read over 200 scientific studies reported at Pubmed.org about Gamma Linolenic Acid (GLA) and Cancer. (4) Read over 60 scientific studies reported at Pubmed.org about Gamma Linolenic Acid (GLA) and Cardiovascular Heart Disease. (5) Read over 90 scientific studies reported at Pubmed.org about Gamma Linolenic Acid (GLA) and Diabetes.

References

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2. “Identification of a fatty acid {Delta}6-desaturase deficiency in human skin fibroblasts”, Journal of Lipid Research, Vol. 42, 501-508, April, 2001.
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34. “Differential effects of prostaglandin derived from w-6 and w-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on COX-2 expression and IL-6 secretion” (Fish Oil, Source of EPA/DHA), Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2003 February 18; 100(4): 1751-1756.
35. “Cellular interactions between n-6 and n-3 fatty acids: a mass analysis of fatty acid elongation/desaturation, distribution among complex lipids, and conversion to eicosanoids” (Role of Enzymes and Other Factors in Lipid Metabolism of Omega-3 vs. Omega-6 Fatty Acids), Journal of Lipid Research, 1992 Oct;33(10):1431-40.
36. “Trans, trans-2,4-decadienal, a product found in cooking oil fumes, induces cell proliferation and cytokine production due to reactive oxygen species in human bronchial epithelial cells” (Protective role of N-Acetylcysteine NAC), Toxicological Sciences, 2005